Thursday, October 31, 2019

Drug Law and Policies; A Danger to Our Freedom and Privacy Essay

Drug Law and Policies; A Danger to Our Freedom and Privacy - Essay Example The agencies concerned with drug control have acknowledged that there are more problems when some drugs are treated as illegal than when they are legalized (March, Oviedo & Romero, 2006, p27-33) This paper talks about the inappropriate moves that the government have made under the umbrella of protection as from the harm caused by drugs. Actually, the penalty for smoking a 2-inch long bang is more risky to one’s health than the smoke from the drug. The penalty is in the most case related to discrimination, induced stigmatization, exposure to poor health, escalation of drug-related crime and negative environmental impact... Everywhere in the world, the public to admit that war on drugs has the significant negative impact in their lives, in some minor case the moves succeeds in making a wrong right. Undermining of fundamental liberties and human rights are a common phenomenon that a person found d to be using drugs have to experience in the hands of the law enforcement officers. The inhuman punishments, unfair trial standards and demonization of people are just but a few weapons widely used to fight drugs (David, 2006, p17-36). Technically, the war appears not to be against drugs but the humans. To some extent, the officers go to the extreme ends of shooting down criminals without being subjected to fair trials. Often first pages of public magazines start with the crime scene in which a suspected drug lord has been gunned down at a checkpoint, this means that the war on drug permits the use of orthodox measure including a sentence to death without trial at a mere suspicion drugs abuse. The law permits po lice officers to arrest anyone suspected of committing a crime, but when it comes to the case of drug addicts, they are always subjected to harassment that includes beatings and detention for a long period of time pending investigations (William, 2014, p20-24). These detention facilities are not pleasant places, they are more like the prison, the only difference is that in a prison one is allowed to see a lawyer often making the detention facilities worse than prisons.

Tuesday, October 29, 2019

Oil & Gas Operations Industry Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Oil & Gas Operations Industry - Research Paper Example Despite these challenges, analyst have continued to forecast positive trends in this industry, particularly because the demand of gas and oil is on the rise, coupled with more advanced technology, which has improved production processes and fundamentally reduced production cost. My choice of portfolio in this industry is majorly motivated by the need to strike a balanced diversification, with the aim of spreading risks across different companies with different risk profiles, as well as maximizing the returns. In particular, I have diversified the portfolio across different companies that have invested from different geographical background, including the United States, United Kingdom, China, and Russia. Although the 10 companies that my portfolio cuts across, deals with similar products, there are slight differences on the combination of products that they deal with, which boost my diversification profile. This report will also provide a brief summary of each company, and some key re asons why I intend to invest in them. Most of the reasons are motivated by the need to diversify and mitigate the risks from different companies. The report has identified various challenges that this industry is undergoing, which has led to a conclusion that it has a high risk profile, but one worth investing in because of its optimistic long-term prospects. A comprehensive analysis of movement of prices of the shares for four weeks that ended mid May has been undertaken. Evidently, there has been a decline of share prices for all companies, which has led to loss of value of my portfolio, but this has not significantly affected my goals of making capital gain in the long-term, because these are short-term fluctuations, which are not likely to last for long. Essentially, I have undertaken the valuation of my portfolio in terms of US Dollar, and hence had to convert the value of shares that are traded in other currencies such as Chinese Yuan. This has significantly affected the accur acy of valuation of the portfolio as the exchanges rates are mere estimates. Different trends are made clear by use of tables and graphs. At the end, I have carried out a percentage analysis and found that the shares have fundamentally lost value. I have also used the Dow Jones Industrial Average as a benchmark to assess the performance of my portfolio. Investment Analysis A brief overview of Oil & Gas Operations Industry The oil and gas industry is operating under a challenging and a dynamic global marketplace and a progressively more adamant group of participants. The regulatory demand is increasingly putting pressure on the operations, and the demand growth is becoming sluggish, while the existing reserves are more expensive and difficult to generate. As the demand to meet future demand builds up, worldwide alliances are becoming more significant. Over the recent years, oil price fluctuation has become the order of the day. In spite of this, the companies in this industry have a challenging task of ensuring they focus on the medium to long-term conditions if they are to make credible decisions and achieve their growth targets. Investing in people, technology and R&D are critical to ensuring a lasting competitive edge (Dybvig & Stephen, 1985). The industry has to contend with mounting uncertainty that is particularly typical of the current decade. With tighter regulations and new policies to adhere to, long term planning and strategy are very critical, given the uncertain environment. In a bid to balance the mounting demand with sustainable and sufficient energy, oil and gas companies are adopting new technologies to supply

Sunday, October 27, 2019

Space Power as Force Multiplier

Space Power as Force Multiplier CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION 1. The Space has always been a great matter of interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. 2. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[6]. 3. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem 4. To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study 5. Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. 6. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Communications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. 7. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope 8. This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection 9. The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation 10. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER – II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius 1. Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions 2. Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[14] 3. Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[15] 4. Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between that plane and that of the Earths equator, measured on its north bound pass over the equator, is known as satellite inclination. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as polar orbits. Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be seen by satellite sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. 5. Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[16] 6. Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. 7. Semi-synchronous Orbit . This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. 8. Molniya Orbit . This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[17] 9. Geostationary Orbit (GEO) . This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small figure of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. 10. Geosynchronous Orbit . This orbit is also circular and inclined and is at an altitude of 35,700 km. This orbit has little military or other uses because of its large figure of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term geostationary, is tending to be replaced by geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[18] 11. Super-synchronous Orbit . The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[19] 12. Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[22]. 13. The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[23]. 14. LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. 15. The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[24] 16. Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[26]. 17. The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. Figure 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[27]. 18. During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[28]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER 19. The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[29] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. 20. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two di stinct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[31]. 21. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[32]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space w ill be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. 22. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[33]. 23. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[34] 24. The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a mili tary space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[35]. Air and Space relationship 25. The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[38] 26. Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[40] 27. It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[42] CHAPTER – III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet 1. Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[43] 2. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, like the sensor technology, satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[44] 4. Today, events unfold before our eyes around the world as if we were there. We have advance warning of adverse weather as it develops. We can communicate with people 10 or 10,000 miles away with equal ease, and a small re ­ceiver tells us our exact position and how fast we are moving in the air, on land, or at sea. 5. Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are pre-pared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and signals from global positioning system (GPS) satellites— tomorrow, space may become the site of combat operations. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and dip lomatic factors[45]. 6. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these, and so many more things, unquestionable facts. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. 7. Although many people refer to Operation Desert Storm as the first space war, it did not mark the first use of space capabilities during conflict. During the war in Vietnam, space sys ­tems—communications and meteorological satellites—provided near-real-time data that was essential for combat operation The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support. Since then, we have worked hard to integrate the high-tech advantages provided by speed-of-light space capabilities into all our forces—air, land, and sea. Those efforts significantly improved our American joint way of war, and they paid off during Op ­eration Iraqi Freedom. 8. American forces led a coalition that set benchmarks for speed, precision, lethality, reach, and flexibility. As President George W. Bush said on 1 May 2003 aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, Operation Iraqi Freedom was carried out with a combination of preci ­sion and speed and boldness the enemy did not expect, and the world had not seen be-fore. From distant bases or ships at sea, we sent planes and missiles that could destroy an enemy division, or strike a single bunker. In a matter of minutes—not hours, days, or weeks as in past wars—commanders identified and engaged targets and received timely battle damage assessment. Lt Gen T. Michael Buzz Moseley, the combined force air component commander, reinforced the role that space capabilities played when he said, The satel ­lites have been just unbelievably capable . . . supporting conventional surface, naval, spe ­cial ops and air forces. Theyve made a huge difference for us. 9. The need to protect ones own space assets, and if necessary attack those of the bad guy, will equally inevitably move the war in the air into space. The USAF already has an F15-borne anti-satellite system. Other potential systems include a co-orbital satellite equipped with an explosive warhead or anti-satellite mines.- For every offensive system deployed, a potential adversary whose finances permit this sort of warfare, would have to field a defensive mechanism. This level of Star Wars may be beyond most nations. But the scope for information operations should not be underestimated particularly against commercial satellites the performance information for which is readily available on the Internet.[46] 10. Supporting Role 11. Ocean reconnaissance satellites can carry side-ways looking radars to enable them to locate ships and take other maritime measurements in all weather, and at all times of the day. Very precise satellite radars, using synthetic aperture techniques, may shortly be able to measure the level of the sea so accurately that they would be able to detect passage of a submarine beneath it in some areas.[47] 12. The most commonly used sensor in satellites is the camera. The photo reconnaissance cameras on satellites are sensitive to em radiation with a wave length of between 0.004 mm to 0.007 mm and in the IR region of wave length between 0.3 mm and 3000 mm.[48] 13. Photo reconnaissance satellites are the most important of reconnaissance satellites especially during peace time, and for monitoring conflicts around the world. Of all the satellites by China, USA and the erstwhile Soviet Union, about 40% have been used for photographic reconnaissance from LEO. Orbiting at altitudes as low as 200 km, some of these photo reconnaissance satellites are thought to resolve details smaller than 30 cm.[49] The Soviet satellites have a life span of between two weeks and two months. Until the early eighties their films were recovered only when the satellite was brought down, using re-entry trajectory and parachutes. Since they orbit below 200 km at their lowest point, they need regular boosting from on-board rockets to maintain orbit. It is believed that the digital film scanning and transmission is being used by the Russians now. In comparison the American LEO satellites have longer life spans than those of their Soviet counter-part. They are known to have been in orbit for seve ral months and can return film capsules to earth by ejecting them over sea (near Hawaii). These are either caught by aircraft or picked up by a back up ship. Photographs can also be developed and scanned on board the satellite and the information relayed back to ground stations immediately by use of radio signals. 14. Early warning satellites are equipped with infra-red detectors which can detect an ICBM, thereby providing the threatened country with a 30 minute warning. The United States has three geostationary early warning Defence Support Programme (DSP) satellites. One watches the Russian ICBM fields, and the other two the Pacific and Atlantic oceans for SLBM attacks. For geographical reasons, GEO was less attractive to the Soviet Union, and therefore they launched their early warning satellites in Molniya orbits. Complete coverage was obtained by a constellation of nine satellites, with shorter life spans than their American counter-parts. By ensuring the virtual impossibility of a surprise missile attack out of the blue, early warning satellites may be regarded as playing a stabilising role during peace time 15. These satellites have a dual character since during peace time they can help monitor the Limited Test Ban and Non-Proliferation Treaties by watching for above ground nuclear tests. The Unites States launched six successive pairs of super-synchronous Vela satellites for this purpose between 1963 and 1970. Designed at firs to operate for only six months, the first three pairs exceeded this limit by enormous margins, often working for nearly than 10 years. 16. Active Military Application Space can be defined as the new battlefield after Land, Sea and Air. It is the final frontier or final goal, which every one desires to conquer or reach. Space is fast emerging as not only the new Economic High Ground but also as the new military frontier of becoming a new Strategic High Ground.[50] 17. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites have been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[51]. Space Based Lasers for Ballistic Missile Defense 18. Interest in utilizing space-based lasers (SBLs) for ballistic missile defense (BMD) arose when two facts emerged. First, ballistic missiles are relatively fragile and do not resist laser energy and secondly, chemical lasers could project missile killing amounts of energy over 3,000 kilometers. These two facts peaked political interest over the possibility of placing laser weapons in space. SBLs could be used to intercept ballistic missiles in their boost phase, thus dropping disabled missiles on an enemys own territory. 19. The Lethality of A Space-Based Laser 20. Delivering a high-intensity laser beam for a long enough time to disable a target is the objective of a laser weapon. Laser energy can damage missile boosters if the laser has a moderate intensity combined with a sustained dwell time on the booster, the laser will then burn through the missile skin. A 10 meter mirror with a hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser beam would yield a 0.32 micro radian divergence angle and create a laser spot 1.3 meters in diameter at a range of 4,000 meters. The distribution of 20 MW over the laser spot would create an energy flux of 1.5 kilowatts per square centimeter (kW/cm2). The laser spot would need to dwell on the target for 6.6 seconds to create the nominal lethal energy of 10 kilojoules per square centimeter (kJ/cm2).[56] Penetration deeper than this would not be required since the laser would not be in a position to attack missiles in flight until they had reached this altitude. Also, clouds could obscure the booster below a ceiling of 10 kilometers. Table 1: Requirements for several laser weapons ASAT Space ASAT Ground Space-based BMD Laser type chem (HF) chem (DF) chem (HF) Laser wavelength 2.7:m 3.8:m 2.7:m Laser location space ground space Target distance 3,000km 10km 3,0 Space Power as Force Multiplier Space Power as Force Multiplier CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION 1. The Space has always been a great matter of interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. 2. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[6]. 3. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem 4. To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study 5. Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. 6. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Communications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. 7. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope 8. This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection 9. The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation 10. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER – II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius 1. Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions 2. Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[14] 3. Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[15] 4. Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between that plane and that of the Earths equator, measured on its north bound pass over the equator, is known as satellite inclination. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as polar orbits. Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be seen by satellite sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. 5. Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[16] 6. Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. 7. Semi-synchronous Orbit . This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. 8. Molniya Orbit . This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[17] 9. Geostationary Orbit (GEO) . This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small figure of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. 10. Geosynchronous Orbit . This orbit is also circular and inclined and is at an altitude of 35,700 km. This orbit has little military or other uses because of its large figure of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term geostationary, is tending to be replaced by geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[18] 11. Super-synchronous Orbit . The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[19] 12. Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[22]. 13. The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[23]. 14. LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. 15. The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[24] 16. Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[26]. 17. The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. Figure 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[27]. 18. During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[28]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER 19. The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[29] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. 20. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two di stinct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[31]. 21. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[32]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space w ill be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. 22. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[33]. 23. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[34] 24. The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a mili tary space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[35]. Air and Space relationship 25. The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[38] 26. Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[40] 27. It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[42] CHAPTER – III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet 1. Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[43] 2. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, like the sensor technology, satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[44] 4. Today, events unfold before our eyes around the world as if we were there. We have advance warning of adverse weather as it develops. We can communicate with people 10 or 10,000 miles away with equal ease, and a small re ­ceiver tells us our exact position and how fast we are moving in the air, on land, or at sea. 5. Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are pre-pared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and signals from global positioning system (GPS) satellites— tomorrow, space may become the site of combat operations. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and dip lomatic factors[45]. 6. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these, and so many more things, unquestionable facts. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. 7. Although many people refer to Operation Desert Storm as the first space war, it did not mark the first use of space capabilities during conflict. During the war in Vietnam, space sys ­tems—communications and meteorological satellites—provided near-real-time data that was essential for combat operation The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support. Since then, we have worked hard to integrate the high-tech advantages provided by speed-of-light space capabilities into all our forces—air, land, and sea. Those efforts significantly improved our American joint way of war, and they paid off during Op ­eration Iraqi Freedom. 8. American forces led a coalition that set benchmarks for speed, precision, lethality, reach, and flexibility. As President George W. Bush said on 1 May 2003 aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, Operation Iraqi Freedom was carried out with a combination of preci ­sion and speed and boldness the enemy did not expect, and the world had not seen be-fore. From distant bases or ships at sea, we sent planes and missiles that could destroy an enemy division, or strike a single bunker. In a matter of minutes—not hours, days, or weeks as in past wars—commanders identified and engaged targets and received timely battle damage assessment. Lt Gen T. Michael Buzz Moseley, the combined force air component commander, reinforced the role that space capabilities played when he said, The satel ­lites have been just unbelievably capable . . . supporting conventional surface, naval, spe ­cial ops and air forces. Theyve made a huge difference for us. 9. The need to protect ones own space assets, and if necessary attack those of the bad guy, will equally inevitably move the war in the air into space. The USAF already has an F15-borne anti-satellite system. Other potential systems include a co-orbital satellite equipped with an explosive warhead or anti-satellite mines.- For every offensive system deployed, a potential adversary whose finances permit this sort of warfare, would have to field a defensive mechanism. This level of Star Wars may be beyond most nations. But the scope for information operations should not be underestimated particularly against commercial satellites the performance information for which is readily available on the Internet.[46] 10. Supporting Role 11. Ocean reconnaissance satellites can carry side-ways looking radars to enable them to locate ships and take other maritime measurements in all weather, and at all times of the day. Very precise satellite radars, using synthetic aperture techniques, may shortly be able to measure the level of the sea so accurately that they would be able to detect passage of a submarine beneath it in some areas.[47] 12. The most commonly used sensor in satellites is the camera. The photo reconnaissance cameras on satellites are sensitive to em radiation with a wave length of between 0.004 mm to 0.007 mm and in the IR region of wave length between 0.3 mm and 3000 mm.[48] 13. Photo reconnaissance satellites are the most important of reconnaissance satellites especially during peace time, and for monitoring conflicts around the world. Of all the satellites by China, USA and the erstwhile Soviet Union, about 40% have been used for photographic reconnaissance from LEO. Orbiting at altitudes as low as 200 km, some of these photo reconnaissance satellites are thought to resolve details smaller than 30 cm.[49] The Soviet satellites have a life span of between two weeks and two months. Until the early eighties their films were recovered only when the satellite was brought down, using re-entry trajectory and parachutes. Since they orbit below 200 km at their lowest point, they need regular boosting from on-board rockets to maintain orbit. It is believed that the digital film scanning and transmission is being used by the Russians now. In comparison the American LEO satellites have longer life spans than those of their Soviet counter-part. They are known to have been in orbit for seve ral months and can return film capsules to earth by ejecting them over sea (near Hawaii). These are either caught by aircraft or picked up by a back up ship. Photographs can also be developed and scanned on board the satellite and the information relayed back to ground stations immediately by use of radio signals. 14. Early warning satellites are equipped with infra-red detectors which can detect an ICBM, thereby providing the threatened country with a 30 minute warning. The United States has three geostationary early warning Defence Support Programme (DSP) satellites. One watches the Russian ICBM fields, and the other two the Pacific and Atlantic oceans for SLBM attacks. For geographical reasons, GEO was less attractive to the Soviet Union, and therefore they launched their early warning satellites in Molniya orbits. Complete coverage was obtained by a constellation of nine satellites, with shorter life spans than their American counter-parts. By ensuring the virtual impossibility of a surprise missile attack out of the blue, early warning satellites may be regarded as playing a stabilising role during peace time 15. These satellites have a dual character since during peace time they can help monitor the Limited Test Ban and Non-Proliferation Treaties by watching for above ground nuclear tests. The Unites States launched six successive pairs of super-synchronous Vela satellites for this purpose between 1963 and 1970. Designed at firs to operate for only six months, the first three pairs exceeded this limit by enormous margins, often working for nearly than 10 years. 16. Active Military Application Space can be defined as the new battlefield after Land, Sea and Air. It is the final frontier or final goal, which every one desires to conquer or reach. Space is fast emerging as not only the new Economic High Ground but also as the new military frontier of becoming a new Strategic High Ground.[50] 17. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites have been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[51]. Space Based Lasers for Ballistic Missile Defense 18. Interest in utilizing space-based lasers (SBLs) for ballistic missile defense (BMD) arose when two facts emerged. First, ballistic missiles are relatively fragile and do not resist laser energy and secondly, chemical lasers could project missile killing amounts of energy over 3,000 kilometers. These two facts peaked political interest over the possibility of placing laser weapons in space. SBLs could be used to intercept ballistic missiles in their boost phase, thus dropping disabled missiles on an enemys own territory. 19. The Lethality of A Space-Based Laser 20. Delivering a high-intensity laser beam for a long enough time to disable a target is the objective of a laser weapon. Laser energy can damage missile boosters if the laser has a moderate intensity combined with a sustained dwell time on the booster, the laser will then burn through the missile skin. A 10 meter mirror with a hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser beam would yield a 0.32 micro radian divergence angle and create a laser spot 1.3 meters in diameter at a range of 4,000 meters. The distribution of 20 MW over the laser spot would create an energy flux of 1.5 kilowatts per square centimeter (kW/cm2). The laser spot would need to dwell on the target for 6.6 seconds to create the nominal lethal energy of 10 kilojoules per square centimeter (kJ/cm2).[56] Penetration deeper than this would not be required since the laser would not be in a position to attack missiles in flight until they had reached this altitude. Also, clouds could obscure the booster below a ceiling of 10 kilometers. Table 1: Requirements for several laser weapons ASAT Space ASAT Ground Space-based BMD Laser type chem (HF) chem (DF) chem (HF) Laser wavelength 2.7:m 3.8:m 2.7:m Laser location space ground space Target distance 3,000km 10km 3,0

Friday, October 25, 2019

Facts about Earths Moon Essay -- essays research papers

The moon is a wondrous thing. Every night it's outside, up high in the sky, giving light to the world. Most people take advantage of the moon's light, because they don't know why or how the moon shines. Scientists today are busy proving theories and studying the moon, which will hopefully help society to understand the moon more. They know a lot about the moon, but there is still much more to learn. ?The Eagle has landed.? Many people use this phrase without knowing where it came from. On July 20, 1969, NASA astonished the world, when Neil Armstrong spoke these words when the Apollo spacecraft, nicknamed ?the Eagle,? landed on the moon?s surface. He later spoke the famous words, ?One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind,? when he was the first man to set foot on the moon. When astronauts walk on the moon, they are allowed to breathe, because of their space suits. These space suits have oxygen tanks in them, and allow astronauts to stay out in space for up to seven hours at a time. They have to think ahead a few steps so they can step or turn without difficulty, because they have to take huge steps. The pull of gravity on the moon is one-sixth lower than the pull of gravity on the Earth, which makes them a lot lighter on the moon. The moon?s gravitational pull controls the ocean?s tides on the Earth. The moon pulls the Earth and water towards it, which causes an increase of water nearest the moon. As the moon pulls the core of the Earth towards it, the water on the side farthest away from the moon flings around to the side, and creates an increase of water there, too. The increase of water is called a high tide. On the sides of the Earth not facing the sun or moon, there are low tides. Each beach or po... ...lieve that millions of years ago, a piece of rock as big as Mars hit the Earth, and the collision blasted a huge amount of rock into space, and the shattered pieces of rock went into orbit around the Earth. Over millions of years, the rocks clumped together to form the moon, and now it is not the pieces of rock that orbit the Earth, but the moon itself. Scientists, Native Americans, and many other people have their theories of how the moon became, but none have been proven. Scientists have studied the moon for many years, and have proven many theories, but not this one. Most people still take advantage of the moon, even after society has learned so much about it. They won?t think of it until the day the moon isn?t there anymore, which won?t happen anytime soon. Scientists have helped us greatly in understanding the moon, but there is still much more to learn.

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Crime and Prostitution Essay

Prostitution is known as the oldest profession in the world, however, many states in the U.S. outlaw it. The textbook definition of prostitution is the â€Å"act or practice of engaging in sexual acts for money† (â€Å"Prostitution,† Macmillan 805). Nevada is the first in the United States to legalize prostitution. Although the long term effects of legalized prostitution is uncertain, the short term effects have been economically beneficial. Prostitution should be legalized because not only could it financially benefit the country, but it could also reduce crime. There are many reasons why prostitution is illegal in 49 U.S. states today. First, and foremost, many people feel that prostitution should stay illegal in order to preserve morality. Parents do not want their children to grow up thinking that prostitution is acceptable. Worse yet, parents do not want to hear their children say, â€Å"When I grow up, I want to be a prostitute.† Christianity also looks down upon prostitution because according to their beliefs, the act of sex is only to be done when a man and a women are in love and married. Monogamy is to be practiced in the marriage, and any violation of this is considered a sin. Another reason why the preservation of morality is so important is that people’s morals shape the future of a nation. Many people feel that if prostitution is legalized, then its long term effects would be detrimental to the.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Computers help in agriculture?

Agriculture Computers help in agriculture? It can't sow seeds or harvest crops or irrigate fields. But it can definitely help the farmers and the agricultural scientist in various stages of farming. And why haven't we used computers in agriculture till date? Just one reason, farmers are not comfortable with computers. And since there's no market for such a technology, the industry never bothered to consider that field for making any software.Countries like USA and Australia use software in their day to day farming activity. It helps them choose the right crop for their field, track the growth and accounting after harvesting. Clearly such technology is useless for Indian agriculture scenario because most farmers in India cannot effectively use it and only a few would be willing to invest in such a tool. So can computer technology really help Indian or other countries agriculture? And my answer is a big yes.It has a bigger role to play in Indian agriculture than in any other countries. Indian agriculture systems have a symbiosis between farmers and agriculture scientists. Scientists need input from farmers about their experience, to come up with new strategies for farmers. If we can somehow avail all the necessary data to scientist, they can for sure come up with better strategies. And if we can aid in their strategy planning by providing tools to do that, scientists will be able to compare different strategies.Having leveraged the scientists to come up various farming strategies, the next obvious step is to enforce these strategies through farmers by letting them choose the one which suits their land the best. Imagine software, which can predict the soil fertility of a land after harvesting a particular crop, provided we have the soil fertility information of the land and the crop to be harvested now. Well if you can predict the fertility of the soil after a particular crop harvest, it lets you decide what's the other crops can be cultivated later and helps deci de the best crop rotation policy.This would guarantee the highest yield all the time. We are not in an ideal world where everyone is a computer wizard. In such a non-ideal world, what good would it bring if given to farmers? How many farmers are out there who can efficiently use such a tool? How to make software that is so easy to use even for farmers? On the other hand, if we give this tool to scientist or government officials, they can help farmers choose the best crop for their lands.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

Composition of the Universe

Composition of the Universe The universe is a vast and fascinating place.   When astronomers consider what its made of, they can point most directly to the billions of galaxies it contains. Each of those has millions or billions- or even trillions- of stars. Many of those stars have planets. There are also clouds of gas and dust.   In between the galaxies, where it seems there would be very little stuff, clouds of hot gases exist in some places, while other regions are nearly empty voids. All that is material that can be detected. So, how difficult can it be to look out into the cosmos and estimate, with reasonable accuracy, the amount of luminous mass (the material we can see) in the universe, using  radio, infrared and x-ray astronomy? Detecting Cosmic Stuff Now that astronomers have highly sensitive detectors, they are making great advances in in figuring out the mass of the universe and what makes up that mass. But thats not the problem.  The answers theyre getting dont make sense. Is their method of adding up the mass wrong (not likely) or is there something else out there; something else that they cant see? To understand the difficulties, its important to understand the mass of the universe and how astronomers measure it. Measuring Cosmic Mass One of the greatest pieces of evidence for the mass of the universe is something called the cosmic microwave background (CMB). Its not a physical barrier or anything like that. Instead, its a condition of the early universe that can be measured using microwave detectors. The CMB dates back to shortly after the Big Bang and is actually the background temperature of the universe. Think of it as heat that is detectable throughout the cosmos equally from all directions. Its not exactly like the heat coming off the Sun or radiating from a planet. Instead, its a very low temperature measured at 2.7 degrees K. When astronomers go to measure this temperature, they see small, but important fluctuations spread throughout this background heat. However, the fact that it exists means that the universe is essentially flat. That means it will expand forever. So, what does that flatness mean for figuring out the mass of the universe? Essentially, given the measured size of the universe, it means there has to be enough mass and energy present within it to make it flat.The problem? Well, when astronomers add up all of the normal matter  (such as stars and galaxies, plus the gas in the universe, thats only about 5% of the critical density that a flat universe needs to remain flat. That means that 95 percent of the universe hasnt yet been detected. Its there, but what is it? Where is it? Scientists say that it exists as dark matter and dark energy.   The Composition of the Universe The mass that we can see is called baryonic matter.   It is the planets, galaxies, gas clouds, and clusters. The mass that cant be seen is called dark matter. There is also energy (light) that can be measured; interestingly, theres also the so-called  dark energy. and nobody has a very good idea of what that is.   So, what does make up the universe and in what percentages? Heres a breakdown of the current proportions of mass in the universe. Heavy Elements in the Cosmos First, there are the heavy elements. They make up about ~0.03% of the universe. For nearly half a billion years after the birth of the universe the only elements that existed were hydrogen and helium They arent heavy. However, after stars were born, lived, and died, the universe started getting seeded with elements heavier than hydrogen and helium that were cooked up inside stars. That happens as stars fuse hydrogen (or other elements) in their cores. Stardeath spreads all those elements to space through planetary nebulae or supernova explosions. Once they are scattered to space. they are prime material for building the next generations of stars and planets.   This is a slow process, however. Even nearly 14 billion years after its creation, the only a small fraction of the mass of the universe is made up of elements heavier than helium. Neutrinos Neutrinos are also part of the universe, although only about 0.3 percent of it. These are created during the nuclear fusion process in the cores of stars, neutrinos are nearly massless particles that travel at nearly the speed of light. Coupled with their lack of charge, their tiny masses mean that they do not interact readily with mass except for a direct impact on a nucleus. Measuring neutrinos is not an easy task. But, it has allowed scientists to get good estimates of nuclear fusion rates of our Sun and other stars, as well as an estimate of the total neutrino population in the universe. Stars When stargazers peer out into the night sky most of what the see is stars. They make up about 0.4 percent of the universe. Yet, when people look at the visible light coming from other galaxies even, most of what they see are stars. It seems odd that they make up only a small part of the universe.   Gases So, whats more, abundant than stars and neutrinos? It turns out that, at four percent, gases make up a much bigger part of the cosmos. They usually occupy the space between stars, and for that matter, the space between whole galaxies. Interstellar gas, which is mostly just free elemental hydrogen and helium makes up most of the mass in the universe that can be directly measured. These gases are detected using instruments sensitive to the radio, infrared and x-ray wavelengths. Dark Matter The second-most-abundant stuff of the universe is something that no one has seen otherwise detected. Yet, it makes up about 22 percent of the universe.  Scientists analyzing the motion (rotation) of galaxies, as well as the interaction of galaxies in galaxy clusters, found that all of the gas and dust present is not enough to explain the appearance and motions of galaxies. It turns out that 80 percent of the mass in these galaxies must be dark. That is, its not detectable in any wavelength of light, radio through gamma-ray. Thats why this stuff is called dark matter.   The identity of this mysterious mass? Unknown. The best candidate is cold dark matter, which is theorized to be a particle similar to a neutrino, but with a much greater mass. It is thought that these particles, often known as weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) arose out of thermal interactions in early galaxy formations. However, as yet we have not been able to detection dark matter, directly or indirectly, or create it in a laboratory. Dark Energy The most abundant mass of the universe is not dark matter or stars or galaxies or clouds of gas and dust. Its something called dark energy and it makes up 73 percent of the universe.   In fact, dark energy isnt (likely) even massive at all. Which makes its categorization of mass somewhat confusing.   So, what is it?   Possibly its a very strange property of space-time itself, or maybe even some unexplained (so far) energy field that permeates the entire universe. Or its neither of those things. Nobody knows. Only time and lots and lots more data will tell. Edited and updated by Carolyn Collins Petersen.

Monday, October 21, 2019

Child Soldiers in the Republic of Congo

Child Soldiers in the Republic of Congo The deadly conflicts experienced by the Democratic Republic of Congo at the end of the twentieth and the beginning of the twenty-first centuries caused numerous negative consequences resulting in the severe social crisis in the country. The Second Congo War that started in 1998 has become one of the most dreadful armed conflicts of the second half of the twentieth century (McMullen, O’Callaghan, Shannon, Black, Eakin, 2013).Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Child Soldiers in the Republic of Congo specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Recruitment of child soldiers is one of the practices often used by official and nonofficial armed forces in the country. Such practice presents a serious threat to the life and psychological health of children as the experience gained in the army leaves irreversible changes in their social attitudes and psyche. Finding an effective solution to the problem of child soldiers in Congo is necessary for ensuring the healthy environment for the population of the country. Though numerous actions were taken to demobilize the child soldiers after the official end of the war, a certain number of children is still recruited by military groups. The process of demobilization of child soldiers is complicated by the fact that many children do not find support in the society and do not consider themselves a part of it. Investigating the social and ethnic background of former child soldiers can contribute to the success of prevention of future recruitment. The aim of this paper is to answer the questions related to the social and ethnic identity of demobilized child soldiers. The research is aimed at checking if the hypothesis that most soldiers come from the same social and ethnic group is true to life. Confirming or refuting the hypothesis are of vital importance, as the identification of a certain group of children most vulnerable to being recruited by the army will help t o prevent further recruitment by encouraging proper institutions to focus on providing appropriate preventive activities for this group. The Overview of the Research Design As the purpose of the study is to answer the questions about the background of the child soldiers in Congo, descriptive research design seems to be the most appropriate one. A good description is â€Å"fundamental to the research enterprise† as it contributes to the knowledge of the nature of the society (What is research design?, n.d., p. 1). The specifics of descriptive research fit the purpose of the study, as such research helps to obtain the information that is crucial for devising hypotheses and proposing associations (Monsen Van Horn, 2008). As description â€Å"paves the way to prediction†, the chosen research design will help to predict the association between the social and ethnic background of children and their inclination to participate in the Army (Mitchell Jolley, 2013, p. 272).Adve rtising Looking for proposal on ethnicity studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Quantitative research, as a type of descriptive studies, appears to be suitable for the study, as it will help to collect data about the issues discussed above and organize it into valuable descriptive statistics (Monsen Van Horn, 2008, p. 5). The choice of data collection and analysis methods should correspond to the chosen research design. The Data Collection Methods Gathering data about the social and ethnic background of former child soldiers in Congo can be done by using survey methods. As the researcher is learning French, which is the first language in Congo, it will be relatively easy to use such method of data collection as focus group interviews. Focus groups will include family members of demobilized child soldiers and the members of civil society. Each of the group will consist of 5-9 people (Kwok-to Choi Chan, 2013). Suc h survey data collection technique as constructing necessary questionnaire will be used to create an appropriate basis for the interviews. Each group will be requested to answer a certain number of questions during an-hour-long sessions. The participants will be asked to share their views on the discussed issue, and the appropriate records will be made. Monitoring of narratives of demobilized children in Congo will also be used as an additional method of obtaining data for the study. The narratives will be selected based on careful analysis to identify certain features related to social and ethnic background common among child soldiers. Analysis Methods The collected data will be analyzed by reviewing the answers of the participants and identifying if they reflect common social and ethnic patterns typical of child soldiers in Congo. The detailed statistical analysis of obtained information will be conducted to demonstrate if certain social and ethnic groups prevail among former chil d soldiers. Descriptive statistics analysis will suit the purpose of the study and help the researcher to find the association between the investigated factors and the willingness to participate in the army. Descriptive statistics will help to describe the basic features of the data obtained during the study and provide summaries about the sample (Trochim, 2006). Such statistics will enable the researcher to describe what the data shows. Two variables, social background and ethnic origin of former child soldiers, will be analyzed. As it is rather difficult to calculate the statistics when there two or more variables, appropriate statistics program should be used. The data will be put to Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program to get the appropriate table of results.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Child Soldiers in the Republic of Congo specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A Sampling Scheme A rando m sample will be used to ensure that the results can predict the features common to the whole population. A sample frame will be defined to determine a complete list of the population from which the sample should be selected. The creation of sample frame database will enable the researcher to conduct random number selection. The necessary information about the families of former child soldiers will be attained from appropriate institutions, and ten families from different parts of the country will be chosen based on the method of probability sampling. Ten groups of the members of civil society living in various regions of the country will also be chosen randomly. Such method of sampling will help to prevent inaccuracy and ensure that the identified patterns refer to all child soldiers. The written narratives for analysis will also be selected randomly from the database of appropriate institutions located in different regions of Congo. The total number of chosen narratives will be tw enty. The assessment of the selected sample will be conducted to eliminate the risk of missing certain groups of population and getting subjective results. Sample validation will be carried out to ensure that the selected participants truly represent the whole population. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Research Design The main strengths of the research design include its suitability to the purpose of the study. The chosen research design enables the researcher to answer the initial research questions and check the hypothesis. Besides, such research design enables the researcher to ensure that the data obtained during it is objective, and the results can be applied to the whole population. The objectivity of the results is of vital importance, as it lets the researcher make well-grounded claims and encourage further research based on already gained relevant information on the issue. Usage of group based interviews will help to monitor a big number of the people living in Congo in a relatively short period. On the other side, the absence of individualistic approach in group interviews can be defined as a weakness of the research design. However, careful and friendly communication with the individuals included in the groups will help to eliminate the risks related to lack of individualistic features of the survey.Advertising Looking for proposal on ethnicity studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Descriptive statistics analysis will help to analyze the collected data and draw certain conclusions. The researcher will be able to find the correlation between certain social and ethnic groups and the level of children’s participation in military groups. The usage of SPSS software will help to prevent any possibility of making mistakes while calculating the statistics. Usage of random sampling gives numerous benefits to the research, as it helps to ensure that the results are appropriate for being considered typical for the whole population of Congo. Though such sampling requires more time and effort, careful communication with appropriate institutions will help to overcome these challenges. The chosen research design has numerous benefits and will enable the researcher to answer vital questions about the nature of the phenomenon of child soldiers in Congo. The gained results will help other specialists to suggest the appropriate strategy for combating children’s inv olvement in military organizations in Congo. References Kwok-to Choi, M., Chan, K. (2013). Online dating as a strategic game: Why and how men in Hong Kong use QQ to chase women in mainland China. Berlin: Springer Heidelberg. McMullen, J., O’Callaghan, P., Shannon, C., Black, A., Eakin, J. (2013). Group trauma-focused cognitive-behavioural therapy with former child soldiers and other war-affected boys in the DR Congo: A randomised controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(11), 1231-1241. Mitchell, M., Jolley, J. (2013). Research design: Explained (8th ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Monsen, E., Van Horn, L. (2008). Research: Successful approaches (3rd ed.). New York: American Dietetic Association. Trochim, W. (2006). Descriptive Statistics. Retrieved from socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statdesc.php What is a research design? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.nyu.edu/classes/bkg/methods/005847ch1.pdf

Sunday, October 20, 2019

Requisitos para viajar sin visa a EE.UU. como turista

Requisitos para viajar sin visa a EE.UU. como turista Cada aà ±o, millones de turistas viajan sin visa a Estados Unidos porque tienen un pasaporte de uno de los 38 paà ­ses incluidos en el Programa de Exencià ³n de Visados (VWP, por sus siglas en inglà ©s). En este artà ­culo se informa sobre quà © paà ­ses estn incluidos en esa lista, los casos de doble nacionalidad, cules son los requisitos, quà © es la autorizacià ³n para viajar o ESTA, tambià ©n mal llamada visa electrà ³nica, cul es su costo y, finalmente, cules son las ventajas y los inconvenientes de ingresar sin visa a ingresar con visa de turista B2. Paà ­ses en Programa de Exencià ³n de Visas y doble nacionalidad En la actualidad,  38 paà ­ses estn incluidos en el Programa de Exencià ³n de Visados, casi todos europeos o asiticos. Esta regla general tiene una excepcià ³n y es que si los ciudadanos de esos paà ­ses tienen doble nacionalidad con Irn, Irak, Siria o Sudn entonces no pueden beneficiarse de ese programa. De todos los paà ­ses hispanohablantes, solamente los ciudadanos de Espaà ±a y Chile pueden beneficiarse de este programa para viajar sin visa a Estados Unidos.  Es suficiente con tener pasaporte chileno o espaà ±ol, aunque se resida habitualmente en otro paà ­s. En el caso de personas con doble nacionalidad, cuando uno de los pasaportes est incluido en el listado del VWP puede utilizarse cualquiera de ellos para ingresar a EE.UU. Si se elige el que permite viajar sin visa, es necesario que a su titular no se le hubiera negado o cancelado previamente una visa a EE.UU. solicitada con el otro pasaporte. Por ejemplo, una mujer colombiana nacida en Colombia pero que tiene un pasaporte italiano porque su padre tenà ­a esa nacionalidad y se la transmitià ³ a la hija puede ingresar a EE.UU. con el pasaporte colombiano con visa de turista o con pasaporte italiano y la ESTA. Sin embargo, si esa misma mujer solicità ³ una visa con el pasaporte colombiano y le fue negada, no puede ingresar con ESTA y pasaporte italiano. Es obligatorio que solicite y obtenga la aprobacià ³n de una visa B2. Sin ella, no podr viajar a Estados Unidos como turista. Las autoridades estadounidenses saben que se trata de la misma persona con pasaportes de dos paà ­ses diferentes por las huellas digitales. Se toman a todo solicitante de visa y tambià ©n a los turistas extranjeros en los pasos de control migratorio y el sistema informtico encuentra la coincidencia. Requisitos para viajar sin visa a EE.UU. Adems de tener un pasaporte de un paà ­s incluido en el listado del VWP, es necesario cumplir otros requisitos. En primer lugar, por aplicacià ³n de la Ley de Mejora del Programa de Exencià ³n de Visas y Prevencià ³n de Viaje Terrorista de 2015, es condicià ³n fundamental para viajar a EE.UU. sin visa no haber viajado a Irn, Irak, Libia, Siria, Somalia, Sudn o Yemen en fecha del 1 de marzo de 2011 o posteriormente. La à ºnica excepcià ³n son los diplomticos o miembros de ejà ©rcitos que hubieran estado en esos paà ­ses por razones de su trabajo. Otro requisito es que el pasaporte debe ser digitalizado con un chip integrado que pueda leer una computadora y con fecha de expiracià ³n de al menos seis meses ms que el dà ­a previsto de finalizacià ³n del viaje a EE.UU., si bien hay excepciones a este requisito para algunos paà ­ses. Asimismo, es imprescindible que cada persona que viaja tenga su propio pasaporte. En otras palabras, nià ±os y bebà ©s deben tener su propio documento y no estar incluidos en el pasaporte del padre o de la madre. Si se quiere llegar a un puesto migratorio de EE.UU. por avià ³n de là ­nea regular o barco, debe llenarse por internet antes de viajar el formulario ESTA, que significa Sistema Electrà ³nico de Autorizacià ³n para Viajar. Adems, se debe tener ticket de regreso. Por el contrario, si se llega en avià ³n o barco privado es obligatorio solicitar a la embajada o consulado una visa de turista. Si se llega por una frontera terrestre no es necesario solicitar autorizacià ³n electrà ³nica. Al llegar allà ­ debe completarse un documento que se conoce como  I-94 registro de ingreso y salida. Otro requisito a cumplir es que el propà ³sito del viaje debe ser turismo, negocios, visitar amigos o familiares, recibir tratamiento mà ©dico o participar en una feria o conferencia. Bajo ningà ºn concepto se puede trabajar. Por ejemplo, los periodistas que tengan la intencià ³n de cubrir un evento debern pedir el correspondiente visado. Tampoco es legal buscar trabajo cuando se tiene situacià ³n de turista. Tampoco se puede estudiar, a menos que se trate de una actividad a tiempo parcial por menos de 19 horas a la semana. Por otro lado, es posible casarse en situacià ³n de turista pero para evitar problemas se recomienda seguir unas directrices de precaucià ³n. Finalmente, es imprescindible no ser inelegible o inadmisible para ingresar a EE.UU. y que, por otra parte, son los mismos requisitos que se exigen a todos los que solicitan visas no inmigrante en un consulado americano. Esas son dos grandes categorà ­as incluyen diversas situaciones como, por ejemplo, haber estado previamente en EE.UU. ms tiempo que el autorizado, carecer de lazos econà ³micos, familiares y sociales fuertes en el paà ­s de residencia habitual, etc. Las causas de inelegibilidad o inadmisibilidad pueden dar lugar a que el oficial migratorio en el puerto de entrada (aeropuerto, puerto o frontera terrestre) niegue la entrada a EE.UU. Ventajas de viajar sin visa frente a obligacià ³n de obtener visa de turista B2 La posibilidad de viajar sin visa es, en primer lugar, ms cà ³modo ya que supone que no se deben obtener los documentos obligatorios y de apoyo que se presentan en el consulado o embajada de Estados Unidos durante el trmite de la entrevista para obtener la visa de turista B2. Otra ventaja es que es un proceso es ms rpido, ya que no hay que esperar a la entrevista ni programar una maà ±ana de tiempo dedicada a presentarse en el consulado y, dependiendo del paà ­s, tambià ©n a un Centro de Apoyo CAS o ACS. Adems, viajar sin visa es ms barato. En estos momentos la visa de turista tiene un costo de $160 por persona, que se puede incrementar en algunos paà ­ses en cumplimiento de leyes de reciprocidad. Esa cantidad nunca se recupera, aunque la visa sea negada. Por el contrario, la autorizacià ³n para viajar que se conoce como ESTA tiene un costo de $14 y si es rechazada el solicitante obtendr un reembolso de $10 con lo que el costo es de $4 para esos supuestos. Adems, la ESTA la puede solicitarla cualquier turista que cumple todos los requisitos del VWP desde su casa sin necesidad de presentar documentacià ³n o acudir a una entrevista en un consulado. Cabe destacar que no es necesario solicitar la ESTA si se llega a una frontera de Estados Unidos por và ­a terrestre. Autorizacià ³n de viaje ESTA vs. visa electrà ³nica y tiempo mximo de estancia en USA Es comà ºn llamarle visa electrà ³nica a la ESTA, pero no es correcto. No es una visa y, al no ser una visa, no se puede bajo ningà ºn concepto extender el tiempo mximo autorizado de presencia en EE.UU. Tampoco se puede cambiar por otra visa como, por ejemplo, la de turista, por la misma razà ³n, porque la ESTA no es una visa. Y lo mismo aplica a los que ingresan con pasaporte de un paà ­s incluido en el listado de los VWP y sin ESTA porque llegan a travà ©s de una frontera terrestre. Un ingreso a EE.UU. sin visa bajo este programa tiene una estancia mxima de 90 dà ­as. A los tres meses hay que salir del paà ­s. No hay posibilidad de prà ³rroga. Si durante la estancia en Estados Unidos, el turista visita brevemente Bermudas, Canad o Mà ©xico, al regresar se podr entrar, pero no se alargar el tiempo de estancia que seguir siendo el mismo que correspondà ­a a la primera entrada. Cabe destacar que ss muy comà ºn que justo antes de acabar los tres meses la persona extranjera salga a Bermudas, Mà ©xico o Canad por un periodo corto de tiempo, con el fin de lograr un nuevo permiso de estancia en Estados Unidos por otros tres meses. En el momento que regresa puede suceder que el oficial de Inmigracià ³n le deje entrar, sin conceder ms dà ­as extras. Sin embargo, tambià ©n puede que  no le permita regresar a Estados Unidos. La razà ³n es clara: se est vulnerando el espà ­ritu de las leyes migratorias de EE.UU. Si quiere prolongar su estancia en Estados Unidos deber salir del paà ­s conseguir la visa apropiada en una embajada o consulado americano. Finalmente, es recomendable  este test de respuestas mà ºltiples sobre la ESTA y sobre viajar sin visa para asegurar los conocimientos que aplican a esta situacià ³n y evitar problemas migratorios en EE.UU. Puntos Claves: viajar sin visa a Estados Unidos Las personas con un pasaporte incluido en el listado del Programa de Exencià ³n de Visados (VWP) pueden viajar sin visas a Estados Unidos como turistas, para tratamiento mà ©dico, reuniones de negocios, etc.En la actualidad, 38 paà ­ses estn incluidos en el VWP, entre ellos Chile y Espaà ±a. La mayorà ­a de los otros paà ­ses son europeos y asiticos.No pueden viajar sin visa bajo este programa las personas que han visitado Irn, Irk, Siria, Somalia, Sudn, Libia o Yemen con fecha de 1 de marzo de 2011 o posteriormente. Ests excluidos de esta regla militares y diplomticos que viajaron por razà ³n de sus viajes.Si se llega a EE.UU. por barco o avià ³n regular, debe solicitarse con autoridad una autorizacià ³n para viajar conocida como ESTA. No es necesaria si se llega por tierra. Si se llega en avià ³n o barco privado no se puede viajar con ESTA y es imprescindible solicitar una visa de turista.La estancia mxima de estancia en EE.UU. cuando se viaja bajo este programa es de 90 dà ­as. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.